Which of the following is a risk factor associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) due to stress?

Stress is known to contribute significantly to cardiovascular disease (CVD) through various physiological and behavioral mechanisms. When an individual experiences stress, it can trigger a response in the body that includes the release of hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, leading to an increase in heart rate and blood pressure. Over time, chronic stress can lead to unhealthy coping mechanisms, one of which is smoking.

Smoking is a well-established risk factor for cardiovascular disease, as it damages blood vessels, promotes the build-up of plaque, reduces oxygen levels in the blood, and fosters inflammation within the cardiovascular system. Smokers are significantly more likely to experience heart attacks and strokes compared to non-smokers. Therefore, the connection between stress and smoking is crucial; individuals may turn to smoking as a way to cope with stress, thereby increasing their overall risk for CVD.

In contrast, regular exercise is generally protective against CVD, dietary supplements can vary in effectiveness and safety but are typically not a direct risk factor associated with stress-related CVD, and hydration levels, while important for overall health, are not specifically recognized as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in the context of stress.